Unit 1 Clause and sentence structure
Main points
* Simple sentences have one clause.
* Clauses usually consist of a noun group as the subject, and a verb group.
* Clauses can also have another noun group as the object or complement.
* Clauses can have an adverbial, also called an adjunct.
* Changing the order of the words in a clause can change its meaning.
* Compound sentences consist of two or more main clauses. Complex sentences always include a subordinate clause, as well as one or more main clauses.
1 A simple sentence has one clause, beginning with a noun group called the subject. The subject is the person or thing that the sentence is about. This is followed by a verb group, which tells you what the subject is doing, or describes the subject's situation.
I waited.
The girl screamed.
2 The verb group may be followed by another noun group, which is called the object. The object is the person or thing affected by the action or situation.
He opened the car door.
She married a young engineer.
After link verbs like `be', `become', `feel', and `seem', the verb group may be followed by a noun group or an adjective, called a complement. The complement tells you more about the subject.
She was a doctor.
He was angry.
3 The verb group, the object, or the complement can be followed by an adverb or a prepositional phrase, called an adverbial. The adverbial tells you more about the action or situation, for example how, when, or where it happens. Adverbials are also called adjuncts.
They shouted loudly.
She won the competition last week.
He was a policeman in Birmingham.
4 The word order of a clause is different when the clause is a statement, a question, or a command.
He speaks English very well. (statement)
Did she win at the Olympics? (question)
Stop her. (command)
Note that the subject is omitted in commands, so the verb comes first.
5 A compound sentence has two or more main clauses: that is, clauses which are equally important. You join them with `and', `but', or `or'.
He met Jane at the station and went shopping.
I wanted to go but I felt too ill.
You can come now or you can meet us there later.
Note that the order of the two clauses can change the meaning of the sentence.
He went shopping and met Jane at the station.
If the subject of both clauses is the same, you usually omit the subject in the second clause.
I wanted to go but felt too ill.
6 A complex sentence contains a subordinate clause and at least one main clause. A subordinate clause gives information about a main clause, and is introduced by a conjunction such as `because', `if', `that', or a `wh'-word. Subordinate clauses can come before, after, or inside the main clause.
When he stopped, no one said anything.
If you want, I'll teach you.
They were going by car because it was more comfortable.
I told him that nothing was going to happen to me.
The car that I drove was a Ford.
The man who came into the room was small.
Unit 2 The noun group
* Noun groups can be the subject, object, or complement of a verb, or the object of a preposition.
* Noun groups can be nouns on their own, but often include other words such as determiners, numbers, and adjectives.
* Noun groups can also be pronouns.
* Singular noun groups take singular verbs, plural noun groups take plural verbs.
1 Noun groups are used to say which people or things you are talking about. They can be the subject or object of a verb.
Strawberries are very expensive now.
Keith likes strawberries.
A noun group can also be the complement of a link verb such as `be', `become', `feel', or `seem'.
She became champion in 1964.
He seemed a nice man.
A noun group can be used after a preposition, and is often called the object of the preposition.
I saw him in town.
She was very ill for six months.
2 A noun group can be a noun on its own, but it often includes other words. A noun group can have a determiner such as `the' or `a'. You put determiners at the beginning of the noun group.
The girls were not in the house.
He was eating an apple.
3 A noun group can include an adjective. You usually put the adjective in front of the noun.
He was using blue ink.
I like living in a big city.
Sometimes you can use another noun in front of the noun.
I like chocolate cake.
She wanted a job in the oil industry.
A noun with 's (apostrophe s) is used in front of another noun to show who or what something belongs to or is connected with.
I held Sheila's hand very tightly.
He pressed a button on the ship's radio.
4 A noun group can also have an adverbial, a relative clause, or a `to'-infinitive clause after it, which makes it more precise.
I spoke to a girl in a dark grey dress.
She wrote to the man who employed me.
I was trying to think of a way to stop him.
A common adverbial used after a noun is a prepositional phrase beginning with `of'.
He tied the rope to a large block of stone.
The front door of the house was wide open.
I hated the idea of leaving him alone.
Participles and some adjectives can also be used after a noun.
See Units 19 and 29.
She pointed to the three cards lying on the table.
He is the only man available.
5 Numbers come after determiners and before adjectives.
I had to pay a thousand dollars.
Three tall men came out of the shed.
6 A noun group can also be a pronoun. You often use a pronoun when you are referring back to a person or thing that you have already mentioned.
I've got two boys, and they both enjoy playing football.
You also use a pronoun when you do not know who the person or thing is, or do not want to be precise.
Someone is coming to mend it tomorrow.
7 A noun group can refer to one or more people or things. Many nouns have a singular form referring to one person or thing, and a plural form referring to more than one person or thing.
See Unit 4.
My dog never bites people.
She likes dogs.
Similarly, different pronouns are used in the singular and in the plural.
I am going home now.
We want more money.
When a singular noun group is the subject, it takes a singular verb. When a plural noun group is the subject, it takes a plural verb.
His son plays football for the school.
Her letters are always very short.
Unit 3 The verb group
* In a clause, the verb group usually comes after the subject and always has a main verb.
* The main verb has several different forms.
* Verb groups can also include one or two auxiliaries, or a modal, or a modal and one or two auxiliaries.
* The verb group changes in negative clauses and questions.
* Some verb groups are followed by an adverbial, a complement, an object, or two objects.
1 The verb group in a clause is used to say what is happening in an action or situation. You usually put the verb group immediately after the subject. The verb group always includes a main verb.
They killed the elephants.
2 Regular verbs have four forms: the base form, the third person singular form of the present simple, the `-ing' form or present participle, and the `-ed' form used for the past simple and for the past participle.
ask* asks* asking* asked
dance* dances* dancing* danced
reach* reaches* reaching* reached
try* tries* trying* tried
dip* dips* dipping* dipped
Irregular verbs may have three forms, four forms, or five forms. Note that `be' has eight forms.
cost* costs* costing
think* thinks* thinking* thought
swim* swims* swimming* swam* swum
be* am/is/are* being* was/were* been
See the Appendix for details of verb forms.
3 The main verb can have one or two auxiliaries in front of it.
I had met him in Zermatt.
The car was being repaired.
The main verb can have a modal in front of it.
You can go now.
I would like to ask you a question.
The main verb can have a modal and one or two auxiliaries in front of it.
I could have spent the whole year on it.
She would have been delighted to see you.
4 In negative clauses, you have to use a modal or auxiliary and put `not' after the first word of the verb group.
He does not speak English very well.
I was not smiling.
It could not have been wrong.
Note that you often use short forms rather than `not'.
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Szymuszka